According to the endosymbiotic theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts were previously independently living cells but now they would not be able to exist outside of a cell! Around 3.8 billion years ago, or 750 million years after the earth's origin, the first cells are considered to have appeared on the planet. Prokaryotes, or cells without organelles or other internal membrane-bound structures, were these cells. Eukaryotes, which are cells with a nucleus wrapped in membranes, first emerge in the fossil record 2.7 billion years ago. Prokaryotes gave rise to eukaryotes. This is how it's believed to have happened. A prokaryote's surface area to volume ratio fell as it grew in size. The cell's membrane therefore produced infoldings in order to raise the ratio. These infoldings eventually detached from the cell membrane to form an early endomembrane system that encircled the nucleoid. This was the first eukaryotic cell because it had the first membrane-bound nucleus. An aerobic, or oxygen-using, prokaryotic organism, which may have been a parasite or prey, was endophagocytosed by this eukaryotic cell. Currently available genomic sequencing of cells reveals that this prokaryote originated from the alphaproteobacteria, a class of bacteria. Anyhow, this cell resists digestion and develops into an endosymbiont, or a cell that lives within another cell. Funny enough, the eukaryote began to benefit from this endosymbiont. Because cyanobacteria were active at the time, the earth's oxygen concentrations were rising, which was convenient for the aerobic prokaryote because it allowed it to use oxygen to create energy through a process known as respiration. Due to the abundance of partially digested food molecules in the cytoplasm, the aerobic prokaryote profited from its host. The prokaryote produced so much energy from consuming these molecules with oxygen that some ATP spilled into the cell's cytoplasm. Whilst a result, the eukaryote and the endosymbiont became bestest pals, with the endosymbiont evolving into a mitochondrion, as other eukaryotes died extinct due to the increase in oxygen levels. The endosymbiont now has the status of an obligatory endosymbiont, which means it is unable to live outside of the cell. A cyanobacterium that subsequently gave rise to the chloroplast went through the same procedure. This eukaryote served as the precursor to both algae and plants. Plant cells have both mitochondria and chloroplasts, but animal cells solely include mitochondria, proving that chloroplasts underwent a later evolutionary stage. But where is the evidence that endosymbiosis took place? First, cells cannot make new mitochondria or chloroplasts since they multiply on their own by a process akin to binary fission. These organelles' genomes are also very similar to prokaryotic ones since bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria may all contain a single circular DNA molecule. Porins and cardiolipin are also confined to bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. You may have one more question… how are mitochondria passed from generation to generation? Well, you get your mitochondria from your mom. So you can correct someone the next time they claim that your genetic information is split equally!

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